Politi, A., Matthews, J. C. F. & O’Brien, J. L. Shor’s quantum factoring algorithm on a photonic chip. Science 325, 1221 (2009).
Zhong, H.-S. et al. Quantum computational advantage using photons. Science 370, 1460–1463 (2020).
Waks, E. et al. Quantum cryptography with a photon turnstile. Nature 420, 762 (2002).
Lai, S.-K. et al. Satellite-relayed intercontinental quantum network. Phys. Rev. Lett. 120, 030501 (2018).
Brida, G., Genovese, M. & Ruo Berchera, I. Experimental realization of sub-shot-noise quantum imaging. Nat. Photon. 4, 227–230 (2010).
Zarghami, M. et al. A 32 × 32-pixel CMOS imager for quantum optics with per-SPAD TDC, 19.48% fill-factor in a 44.64-μm pitch reaching 1-MHz observation rate. IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits 55, 2819–2830 (2020).
Bruschini, C., Homulle, H., Antolovic, I. M., Burri, S. & Charbon, E. Single-photon avalanche diode imagers in biophotonics: review and outlook. Light Sci. Appl. 8, 87 (2019).
Pawlikowska, A. M., Halimi, A., Lamb, R. A. & Buller, G. S. Single-photon three-dimensional imaging at up to 10 kilometers range. Opt. Express 25, 11919–11931 (2017).
Kuzmenko, K. et al. 3D LIDAR imaging using Ge-on-Si single-photon avalanche diode detectors. Opt. Express 28, 1330–1344 (2020).
Entwistle, M. et al. Geiger-mode APD camera system for single-photon 3D LADAR imaging. In Proc. SPIE Vol. 8375, Advanced Photon Counting Techniques VI, 83750D (SPIE, 2012).
Morimoto, K. et al. Megapixel time-gated SPAD image sensor for 2D and 3D imaging applications. Optica 7, 346–354 (2020).
Hadfield, R. H. Single-photon detectors for optical quantum information applications. Nat. Photon. 3, 696–705 (2009).
Marsili, F. et al. Detecting single infrared photons with 93% system efficiency. Nat. Photon. 7, 210–214 (2013).
Najafi, F. et al. On-chip detection of non-classical light by scalable integration of single-photon detectors. Nat. Commun. 6, 5873 (2015).
Campbell, J. C., Sun, W., Lu, Z., Itzler, M. A. & Jiang, X. Common-mode cancellation in sinusoidal gating with balanced InGaAs/InP single photon avalanche diodes. IEEE J. Quantum Electron. 47, 1505–1511 (2012).
Signorelli, F. et al. Low-noise InGaAs/InP single-photon avalanche diodes for fiber-based and free-space applications. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 28, 3801310 (2022).
Xu, H., Pancheri, L., Dalla Betta, G.-F. & Stoppa, D. Design and characterization of a p+/n-well SPAD array in 150nm CMOS process. Opt. Express 25, 12765–12778 (2017).
Lee, M.-J. et al. High-performance back-illuminated three-dimensional stacked single-photon avalanche diode implemented in 45-nm CMOS technology. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quant. Electron. 24, 3801809 (2018).
Sliney, D. H. & Freasier, B. C. Evaluation of optical radiation hazards. Appl. Opt. 12, 1–24 (1973).
Bird, R. E., Hulstrom, R. L. & Lewis, L. J. Terrestrial solar spectral data sets. Sol. Energy 30, 563–574 (1983).
Arnulf, A., Bricardi, J., Cura, E. & Varet, C. Transmission by haze and fog in the spectral region 0.35 to 10 microns. J. Opt. Soc. Am. 47, 491–498 (1957).
Loudon, A. Y. et al. Enhancement of the infrared detection efficiency of silicon photon-counting avalanche photodiodes by use of silicon germanium absorbing layers. Opt. Lett. 27, 219–221 (2002).
Tosi, A., Dalla Mora, A., Zappa, F. & Cova, S. Germanium and InGaAs/InP SPADs for single-Photon detection in the near-infrared. In Proc. SPIE Vol. 6771, Advanced Photon Counting Techniques II, 67710P (SPIE, 2007).
Lu, Z. et al. Geiger-mode operation of Ge-on-Si avalanche photodiodes. IEEE J. Quantum Electron. 47, 731–735 (2011).
Warburton, R. E. et al. Ge-on-Si single-photon avalanche diode detectors: design, modeling, fabrication, and characterization at wavelengths 1310 and 1550 nm. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 60, 3807–3813 (2013).
Martinez, N. J. D. et al. Single photon detection in a waveguide-coupled Ge-on-Si lateral avalanche photodiode. Opt. Express 25, 161310–16139 (2017).
Vines, P. et al. High performance planar germanium-on-silicon single-photon avalanche diode detectors. Nat. Commun. 10, 1086 (2019).
Ferre Llin, L. et al. High sensitivity Ge-on-Si single-photon avalanche diode detectors. Opt. Lett. 45, 6406–6409 (2020).
Ke, S. et al. Design of wafer-bonded structures for near room temperature Geiger-mode operation of germanium on silicon single-photon avalanche photodiode. Appl. Opt. 56, 4646–4653 (2017).
Soref, R. A., De Leonardis, F. & Passaro, V. M. N. Simulations of nanoscale room temperature waveguide-coupled single-photon avalanche detectors for silicon photonic sensing and quantum applications. ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2, 7503–7512 (2019).
Thorburn, F. et al. Ge-on-Si single-photon avalanche diode detectors for short-wave infrared wavelengths. J. Phys. Photonics 4, 012001 (2022).
Samavedam, S. B., Currie, M. T., Langdo, T. A. & Fitzgerald, E. A. High-quality germanium photodiodes integrated on silicon substrates using optimized relaxed graded buffers. Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 2125–2127 (1998).
Luan, H.-C. et al. High-quality Ge epilayers on Si with low threading-dislocation densities. Appl. Phys. Lett. 75, 2909–2911 (1999).
Osmond, J. et al. Ultralow dark current Ge/Si(100) photodiodes with low thermal budget. Appl. Phys. Lett. 94, 201106 (2009).
Åberg, I. et al. A low dark current and high quantum efficiency monolithic germanium-on-silicon CMOS imager technology for day and night imaging applications. In Proc. 2010 International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) 14.4.1–14.4.4 (IEEE, 2010).
Lee, K.-H. et al. Defects reduction of Ge epitaxial film in a germanium-on-insulator wafer by annealing in oxygen ambient. APL Mater. 3, 016102 (2015).
Morse, M., Dosunmu, O., Sarid, G. & Chetrit, Y. Performance of Ge-on-Si p-i-n photodetectors for standard receiver modules. IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett. 18, 2442–2444 (2006).
Takenaka, M., Morii, K., Sugiyama, M., Nakano, Y. & Takagi, S. Dark current reduction of Ge photodetector by GeO2 surface passivation and gas-phase doping. Opt. Express 20, 8718–8725 (2012).
Sammak, A., Aminian, M., Nanver, L. K. & Charbon, E. CMOS-compatible PureGaB Ge-on-Si APD pixel arrays. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 63, 92–99 (2016).
Kang, Y. et al. Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain–bandwidth product. Nat. Photon. 3, 59–63 (2008).
Duan, N., Liow, T.-Y., Lim, A. E.-J., Ding, L. & Lo, G. Q. 310 GHz gain-bandwidth product Ge/Si avalanche photodetector for 1550 nm light detection. Opt. Express 20, 11031–11036 (2012).
Huang, M. et al. Germanium on silicon avalanche photodiode. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 24, 3800911 (2018).
Assefa, S., Xia, F. & Vlasov, Y. A. Reinventing germanium avalanche photodetector for nanophotonic on-chip optical interconnects. Nature 464, 80–84 (2010).
Virot, L. et al. Germanium avalanche receiver for low power interconnects. Nat. Commun. 5, 4957 (2014).
Chen, H. T. et al. High sensitivity 10Gb/s Si photonic receiver based on a low-voltage waveguide-coupled Ge avalanche photodetector. Opt. Express 23, 815–822 (2015).
Su, Y. K., Chang, C. Y. & Wu, T. S. Temperature dependent characteristics of a PIN avalanche photodiode (APD) in Ge, Si and GaAs. Opt. Quantum Electron. 11, 109–117 (1979).
Hofbauer, M., Steind, B. & Zimmermann, H. Temperature dependence of dark count rate and after pulsing of a single-photon avalanche diode with an integrated active quenching circuit in 0.35 μm CMOS. J. Sens. 2018, 9585931 (2018).
Mahmoudi, H., Hofbauer, M., Goll, B. & Zimmermann, H. Noise and breakdown characterization of SPAD detectors with time-gated photon-counting operation. Sensors 21, 5287 (2021).
Ziarkash, A. W., Joshi, S. K., Stipčević, M. & Ursin, R. Comparative study of afterpulsing behavior and models in single photon counting avalanche photo diode detectors. Sci. Rep. 8, 5076 (2018).
Na, N. et al. High-performance germanium-on-silicon lock-in pixels for indirect time-of-flight applications. In Proc. 2018 International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) 32.4.1–32.4.4 (2018).
