Althaus, L. G., Córsico, A. H., Isern, J. & García-Berro, E. Evolutionary and pulsational properties of white dwarf stars. Astron. Astrophys. Rev. 18, 471–566 (2010).
Saumon, D., Blouin, S. & Tremblay, P.-E. Current challenges in the physics of white dwarf stars. Phys. Rep. 988, 1–63 (2022).
van Horn, H. M. Crystallization of white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 151, 227 (1968).
Tremblay, P.-E. et al. Core crystallization and pile-up in the cooling sequence of evolving white dwarfs. Nature 565, 202–205 (2019).
Cheng, S., Cummings, J. D. & Ménard, B. A cooling anomaly of high-mass white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 886, 100 (2019).
Isern, J., Hernanz, M., Mochkovitch, R. & García-Berro, E. The role of the minor chemical species in the cooling of white dwarfs. Astron. Astrophys. 241, L29–L32 (1991).
Segretain, L. Three-body crystallization diagrams and the cooling of white dwarfs. Astron. Astrophys. 310, 485–488 (1996).
Blouin, S., Daligault, J. & Saumon, D. 22Ne phase separation as a solution to the ultramassive white dwarf cooling anomaly. Astrophys. J. Lett. 911, L5 (2021).
Hollands, M. A. et al. An ultra-massive white dwarf with a mixed hydrogen–carbon atmosphere as a likely merger remnant. Nat. Astron. 4, 663–669 (2020).
Shen, K. J., Blouin, S. & Breivik, K. The Q branch cooling anomaly can be explained by mergers of white dwarfs and subgiant stars. Astrophys. J. Lett. 955, L33 (2023).
Winget, D. E. et al. An independent method for determining the age of the universe. Astrophys. J. Lett. 315, L77 (1987).
Fontaine, G., Brassard, P. & Bergeron, P. The potential of white dwarf cosmochronology. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 113, 409–435 (2001).
Gaia Collaboration. Gaia Data Release 2. Observational Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams. Astron. Astrophys. 616, A10 (2018).
Althaus, L. G., García-Berro, E., Isern, J., Córsico, A. H. & Miller Bertolami, M. M. New phase diagrams for dense carbon-oxygen mixtures and white dwarf evolution. Astron. Astrophys. 537, A33 (2012).
Blouin, S., Daligault, J., Saumon, D., Bédard, A. & Brassard, P. Toward precision cosmochronology. A new C/O phase diagram for white dwarfs. Astron. Astrophys. 640, L11 (2020).
Bauer, E. B. Carbon-oxygen phase separation in Modules for Experiments in Stellar Astrophysics (MESA) white dwarf models. Astrophys. J. 950, 115 (2023).
Kilic, M. et al. The 100 pc white dwarf sample in the SDSS footprint. Astrophys. J. 898, 84 (2020).
Bauer, E. B., Schwab, J., Bildsten, L. & Cheng, S. Multi-gigayear white dwarf cooling delays from clustering-enhanced gravitational sedimentation. Astrophys. J. 902, 93 (2020).
Camisassa, M. E. et al. Forever young white dwarfs: when stellar ageing stops. Astron. Astrophys. 649, L7 (2021).
Fleury, L., Caiazzo, I. & Heyl, J. The cooling of massive white dwarfs from Gaia EDR3. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 511, 5984–5993 (2022).
Camisassa, M. E. et al. The evolution of ultra-massive white dwarfs. Astron. Astrophys. 625, A87 (2019).
Blouin, S. & Daligault, J. Phase separation in ultramassive white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 919, 87 (2021).
Bédard, A., Brassard, P., Bergeron, P. & Blouin, S. On the spectral evolution of hot white dwarf stars. II. Time-dependent simulations of element transport in evolving white dwarfs with STELUM. Astrophys. J. 927, 128 (2022).
Caplan, M. E., Horowitz, C. J. & Cumming, A. Neon cluster formation and phase separation during white dwarf cooling. Astrophys. J. Lett. 902, L44 (2020).
Deloye, C. J. & Bildsten, L. Gravitational settling of 22Ne in liquid white dwarf interiors: cooling and seismological effects. Astrophys. J. 580, 1077–1090 (2002).
García-Berro, E., Althaus, L. G., Córsico, A. H. & Isern, J. Gravitational settling of 22Ne and white dwarf evolution. Astrophys. J. 677, 473–482 (2008).
Bédard, A., Bergeron, P., Brassard, P. & Fontaine, G. On the spectral evolution of hot white dwarf stars. I. A detailed model atmosphere analysis of hot white dwarfs from SDSS DR12. Astrophys. J. 901, 93 (2020).
Romero, A. D., Kepler, S. O., Córsico, A. H., Althaus, L. G. & Fraga, L. Asteroseismological study of massive ZZ Ceti stars with fully evolutionary models. Astrophys. J. 779, 58 (2013).
Koester, D., Kepler, S. O. & Irwin, A. W. New white dwarf envelope models and diffusion. Application to DQ white dwarfs. Astron. Astrophys. 635, A103 (2020).
Althaus, L. G. et al. The formation of ultra-massive carbon-oxygen core white dwarfs and their evolutionary and pulsational properties. Astron. Astrophys. 646, A30 (2021).
Zombeck, M. V. Handbook of Space Astronomy and Astrophysics 3rd edn (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006).
García-Berro, E. et al. A white dwarf cooling age of 8 Gyr for NGC 6791 from physical separation processes. Nature 465, 194–196 (2010).
Kilic, M. et al. The ages of the thin disk, thick disk, and the halo from nearby white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 837, 162 (2017).
Fantin, N. J. et al. The Canada–France Imaging Survey: reconstructing the Milky Way star formation history from its white dwarf population. Astrophys. J. 887, 148 (2019).
Cukanovaite, E. et al. Local stellar formation history from the 40 pc white dwarf sample. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 522, 1643–1661 (2023).
Isern, J. The star formation history in the solar neighborhood as told by massive white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. Lett. 878, L11 (2019).
Salaris, M., Cassisi, S., Pietrinferni, A. & Hidalgo, S. The updated BASTI stellar evolution models and isochrones – III. White dwarfs. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 509, 5197–5208 (2022).
Althaus, L. G. et al. Structure and evolution of ultra-massive white dwarfs in general relativity. Astron. Astrophys. 668, A58 (2022).
Althaus, L. G. et al. Carbon–oxygen ultra-massive white dwarfs in general relativity. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 523, 4492–4503 (2023).
Williams, K. A., Montgomery, M. H., Winget, D. E., Falcon, R. E. & Bierwagen, M. Variability in hot carbon-dominated atmosphere (hot DQ) white dwarfs: rapid rotation? Astrophys. J. 817, 27 (2016).
Kilic, M. et al. The merger fraction of ultramassive white dwarfs. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 518, 2341–2353 (2023).
Kippenhahn, R., Weigert, A. & Weiss, A. Stellar Structure and Evolution 2nd edn (Springer, 2012).
Iglesias, C. A. & Rogers, F. J. Updated OPAL opacities. Astrophys. J. 464, 943 (1996).
Cassisi, S., Potekhin, A. Y., Pietrinferni, A., Catelan, M. & Salaris, M. Updated electron-conduction opacities: the impact on low-mass stellar models. Astrophys. J. 661, 1094–1104 (2007).
Blouin, S., Shaffer, N. R., Saumon, D. & Starrett, C. E. New conductive opacities for white dwarf envelopes. Astrophys. J. 899, 46 (2020).
Böhm-Vitense, E. Über die Wasserstoffkonvektionszone in Sternen verschiedener Effektivtemperaturen und Leuchtkräfte. Mit 5 Textabbildungen. Z. Astrophys. 46, 108 (1958).
Tassoul, M., Fontaine, G. & Winget, D. E. Evolutionary models for pulsation studies of white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 72, 335–386 (1990).
Rohrmann, R. D., Althaus, L. G., García-Berro, E., Córsico, A. H. & Miller Bertolami, M. M. Outer boundary conditions for evolving cool white dwarfs. Astron. Astrophys. 546, A119 (2012).
Stanton, L. G. & Murillo, M. S. Ionic transport in high-energy-density matter. Phys. Rev. E 93, 043203 (2016).
Caplan, M. E., Bauer, E. B. & Freeman, I. F. Accurate diffusion coefficients for dense white dwarf plasma mixtures. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 513, L52–L56 (2022).
Camisassa, M. E. et al. The effect of 22Ne diffusion in the evolution and pulsational properties of white dwarfs with solar metallicity progenitors. Astrophys. J. 823, 158 (2016).
Althaus, L. G., García-Berro, E., Córsico, A. H., Miller Bertolami, M. M. & Romero, A. D. On the formation of hot DQ white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. Lett. 693, L23–L26 (2009).
Coutu, S. et al. Analysis of helium-rich white dwarfs polluted by heavy elements in the Gaia era. Astrophys. J. 885, 74 (2019).
Isern, J., García-Berro, E., Hernanz, M. & Chabrier, G. The energetics of crystallizing white dwarfs revisited again. Astrophys. J. 528, 397–400 (2000).
Blouin, S. & Daligault, J. Direct evaluation of the phase diagrams of dense multicomponent plasmas by integration of the Clapeyron equations. Phys. Rev. E 103, 043204 (2021).
Salaris, M. et al. The cooling of CO white dwarfs: influence of the internal chemical distribution. Astrophys. J. 486, 413–419 (1997).
Fuentes, J. R., Cumming, A., Castro-Tapia, M. & Anders, E. H. Heat transport and convective velocities in compositionally driven convection in neutron star and white dwarf interiors. Astrophys. J. 950, 73 (2023).
Montgomery, M. H. & Dunlap, B. H. Fluid mixing during phase separation in crystallizing white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 961, 197 (2023).
Salaris, M. & Cassisi, S. Chemical element transport in stellar evolution models. R. Soc. Open Sci. 4, 170192 (2017).
Hughto, J. et al. Direct molecular dynamics simulation of liquid-solid phase equilibria for a three-component plasma. Phys. Rev. E 86, 066413 (2012).
Cheng, S., Cummings, J. D., Ménard, B. & Toonen, S. Double white dwarf merger products among high-mass white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 891, 160 (2020).
Schwab, J. Evolutionary models for the remnant of the merger of two carbon-oxygen core white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 906, 53 (2021).
Hurley, J. R., Pols, O. R. & Tout, C. A. Comprehensive analytic formulae for stellar evolution as a function of mass and metallicity. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 315, 543–569 (2000).
Cummings, J. D., Kalirai, J. S., Tremblay, P. E., Ramirez-Ruiz, E. & Choi, J. The white dwarf initial–final mass relation for progenitor stars from 0.85 to 7.5 M⊙. Astrophys. J. 866, 21 (2018).
Holberg, J. B. & Bergeron, P. Calibration of synthetic photometry using DA white dwarfs. Astron. J 132, 1221–1233 (2006).
Tremblay, P. E., Bergeron, P. & Gianninas, A. An improved spectroscopic analysis of DA white dwarfs from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data Release 4. Astrophys. J. 730, 128 (2011).
Dufour, P., Bergeron, P. & Fontaine, G. Detailed spectroscopic and photometric analysis of DQ white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 627, 404–417 (2005).
Blouin, S., Dufour, P., Thibeault, C. & Allard, N. F. A new generation of cool white dwarf atmosphere models. IV. Revisiting the spectral evolution of cool white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 878, 63 (2019).
Gentile Fusillo, N. P. et al. A catalogue of white dwarfs in Gaia EDR3. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 508, 3877–3896 (2021).
Dufour, P. et al. in Proc. 20th European White Dwarf Workshop (eds Tremblay, P.-E., Gaensicke, B. & Marsh, T.) (Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 2017).
Bildsten, L. & Hall, D. M. Gravitational settling of 22Ne in liquid white dwarf interiors. Astrophys. J. Lett. 549, L219–L223 (2001).
Binney, J., Dehnen, W. & Bertelli, G. The age of the solar neighbourhood. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 318, 658–664 (2000).
Bland-Hawthorn, J. & Gerhard, O. The galaxy in context: structural, kinematic, and integrated properties. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 54, 529–596 (2016).
Mor, R., Robin, A. C., Figueras, F., Roca-Fàbrega, S. & Luri, X. Gaia DR2 reveals a star formation burst in the disc 2–3 Gyr ago. Astron. Astrophys. 624, L1 (2019).
Cassisi, S., Potekhin, A. Y., Salaris, M. & Pietrinferni, A. Electron conduction opacities at the transition between moderate and strong degeneracy: uncertainties and impacts on stellar models. Astron. Astrophys. 654, A149 (2021).
Fleury, L., Caiazzo, I. & Heyl, J. The origin of ultramassive white dwarfs: hints from Gaia EDR3. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 520, 364–374 (2023).
