Parks, G. K. et al. X‐ray enhancements detected during thunderstorm and lightning activities. Geophys. Res. Lett. 8, 1176–1179 (1981).
Dwyer, J. R., Smith, D. M. & Cummer, S. A. High-energy atmospheric physics: terrestrial gamma-ray flashes and related phenomena. Space Sci. Rev. 173, 133–196 (2012).
Kelley, N. A. et al. Relativistic electron avalanches as a thunderstorm discharge competing with lightning. Nat. Commun. 6, 7845 (2015).
Ostgaard, N. et al. Gamma ray glow observations at 20-km altitude. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 124, 7236–7254 (2019).
Kochkin, P. et al. In-flight observation of gamma ray glows by ILDAS. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 122, 12801–12811 (2017).
McCarthy, M. & Parks, G. K. Further observations of X-rays inside thunderstorms. Geophys. Res. Lett. 12, 393–396 (1985).
McCarthy, M. P. & Parks, G. K. On the modulation of X ray fluxes in thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 97, 5857–5864 (1992).
Eack, K. B. & Beasley, W. H. Long‐duration X‐ray emissions observed in thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 120, 6887–6897 (2015).
Eack, K. B. et al. X-ray pulses observed above a mesoscale convective system. Geophys. Res. Lett. 23, 2915–2918 (1996).
Eack, K. B. et al. Initial results from simultaneous observation of X rays and electric fields in a thunderstorm. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 101, 29637–29640 (1996).
Eack, K. B. et al. Gamma-ray emissions observed in a thunderstorm anvil. Geophys. Res. Lett. 27, 185–188 (2000).
Wada, Y. et al. Catalog of gamma-ray glows during four winter seasons in Japan. Phys. Rev. Res. 3, 043117 (2021).
Chilingarian, A. Thunderstorm ground enhancements—model and relation to lightning flashes. J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys. 107, 68–76 (2014).
Chilingarian, A., Mailyan, B. & Vanyan, L. Recovering of the energy spectra of electrons and gamma rays coming from the thunderclouds. Atmos. Res. 114-115, 1–16 (2012).
Chilingarian, A., Hovsepyan, G. & Hovhannisyan, A. Particle bursts from thunderclouds: natural particle accelerators above our heads. Phys. Rev. D 83, 062001 (2011).
Chilingarian, A., Hovsepyan, G. & Vanyan, L. On the origin of the particle fluxes from the thunderclouds: energy spectra analysis. Europhys. Lett. 106, 59001 (2014).
Tsuchiya, H. et al. Hardening and termination of long-duration γ rays detected prior to lightning. Phys. Rev. Lett. 111, 015001 (2013).
Tsuchiya, H. et al. Long-duration γ ray emissions from 2007 and 2008 winter thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 116, D09113 (2011).
Smith, D. M. et al. Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes observed up to 20 MeV. Science 07, 1085–1088 (2005).
Marisaldi, M. et al. Detection of terrestrial gamma ray flashes up to 40 MeV by the AGILE satellite. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 115, A00E13 (2010).
Briggs, M. S. et al. First results on terrestrial gamma ray flashes from the Fermi Gamma‐ray Burst Monitor. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 115, A07323 (2010).
Ostgaard, N. et al. First 10 months of TGF observations by ASIM. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 124, 14024–14036 (2019).
Dwyer, J. R. Positron clouds within thunderstorms. J. Plasma Phys. 81, 475810405 (2015).
Østgaard, N. et al. Flickering gamma-ray flashes, the missing link between gamma glows and TGFs. Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07893-0 (2024).
Tsuchiya, H. et al. Observation of thundercloud-related gamma rays and neutrons in Tibet. Phys. Rev. D 85, 092006 (2012).
Sarria, D. et al. Library of simulated gamma-ray glows and application to previous airborne observations. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 128, e2022JD037956 (2023).
Wada, Y. et al. Negative excursion of surface electric fields during gamma-ray glows in winter thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 128, e2023JD039354 (2023).
Enoto, T. et al. Photonuclear reactions triggered by lightning discharge. Nature 551, 481–484 (2017).
Hansen, R. S. et al. How simulated fluence of photons from terrestrial gamma ray flashes at aircraft and balloon altitudes depends on initial parameters. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 118, 2333–2339 (2013).
Østgaard, N. et al. The Modular X- and Gamma-Ray Sensor (MXGS) of the ASIM payload on the International Space Station. Space Sci. Rev. 215, 23 (2019).
Amiot, C. G. et al. Dual-polarization deconvolution and geophysical retrievals from the Advanced Microwave Precipitation Radiometer during OLYMPEX/RADEX. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 38, 607–628 (2021).
Leppert, K. D. & Cecil, D. J. Signatures of hydrometeor species from airborne passive microwave data for frequencies 10–183 GHz. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol. 54, 1313–1334 (2015).
Battaglia, A. et al. Using a multiwavelength suite of microwave instruments to investigate the microphysical structure of deep convective cores. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 121, 9356–9381 (2016).
Heymsfield, G. M. et al. in Advances in Weather Radar Vol. 1 (eds Bringi, V. N., Mishra, K. V. & Thurai, M.) 231–282 (Institution of Engineering and Technology, 2024).
Bateman, M. G. et al. A low-noise, microprocessor-controlled, internally digitizing rotating-vane electric field mill for airborne platforms. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 24, 1245–1255 (2007).
Mach, D. M., Blakeslee, R. J., Bateman, M. G. & Bailey, J. C. Electric fields, conductivity, and estimated currents from aircraft overflights of electrified clouds. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 114, D10204 (2009).
Mach, D. M., Blakeslee, R. J., Bateman, M. G. & Bailey, J. C. Comparisons of total currents based on storm location, polarity, and flash rates derived from high‐altitude aircraft overflights. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 115, D03201 (2010).
Schultz, C. J. et al. Remote sensing of electric fields observed within winter precipitation during the 2020 Investigation of Microphysics and Precipitation for Atlantic Coast‐Threatening Snowstorms (IMPACTS) field campaign. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 126, e2021JD034704 (2021).
Mach, D. M. & Koshak, W. J. General matrix inversion technique for the calibration of electric field sensor arrays on aircraft platforms. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 24, 1576–1587 (2007).
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) & National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). GOES-R Series Product Definition and Users’ Guide (PUG), 27–28 (NOAA & NASA, 2019).
Thomas, R. J. et al. Observations of VHF source powers radiated by lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett. 28, 143–146 (2001).
Agostinelli, S. et al. Geant4—a simulation toolkit. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A 506, 250–303 (2003).
Dwyer, J. R. A fundamental limit on electric fields in air. Geophys. Res. Lett. 30, 2055 (2003).
Marisaldi, M. Data used in the study: Highly dynamic gamma-ray emissions are common in tropical thunderclouds. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12531291 (2024).
