Jan Bartek – AncientPages.com – The Middle Ages are often associated with heroic figures such as Charlemagne, William the Conqueror, and Henry V, as well as brave knights. However, women also played significant roles during this period, despite being less frequently mentioned.
Contrary to the common perception of the era being dominated by tyrannical rulers and power struggles, cooperation and compromise were prevalent, with women holding positions of authority.
Historian Erika Graham-Goering from the University of Oslo has conducted research revealing that one in five women held power in 14th-century France. Her expertise lies in examining who wielded power and how it was exercised during the late Middle Ages, with a particular focus on France during the first half of the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453).
“For historians, it often seems that you either research women in the Middle Ages or you research the upper class and the power elite. I believe these topics are interconnected and cannot be separated because women had considerable influence,” Graham-Goering says.
In the early 14th century, the monarchy was held by the “House of Valois,” which governed from Paris between 1328 and 1589. During this period, France’s territorial boundaries differed significantly from those of today. Notably, the eastern region was under the control of the Holy Roman Empire.
Local Self-Governance And Different Languages
French national history that the importance of local and regional power is overlooked,” says the historian, emphasising that the era was characterised by diversity.
“Some areas were directly under the king, while others had a lot of self-governance. Not only different dialects but also different languages were spoken throughout the country.”
The King’s Power Increased During The Hundred Years’ War
During the Middle Ages, the French kingdom operated under a hierarchical and feudal system, a structure typical of Western Europe at that time. The aristocracy held most political, economic, and military power through inherited positions. Farmers generally did not own land but worked as tenants for local lords.
According to Graham-Goering, France was one of Europe’s most populous countries with 15 million inhabitants. During the Hundred Years’ War with England (circa 1337–1453), the monarchy in Paris grew stronger, fostering a sense of national identity in France. An external enemy often served to consolidate royal power effectively. The king was viewed as sacred and believed to possess supernatural abilities.
Had To Be Able To Negotiate
Graham-Goering’s research explores the organizational structure of society, yielding significant insights. A key discovery is that the exercise of power during that period was considerably less authoritarian and more constructive than what later perceptions might suggest. The focus was on devising practical solutions to address immediate challenges as they emerged.
In the historical context of “Women Inherited Power,” the lords of Brittany are depicted acknowledging both the duke and duchess. This scene is captured in an illustration from Froissart’s Chronicles, dating back to the 15th century. This image serves as a valuable historical record, highlighting the recognition and influence of women in positions of power during that era. Credit: Public Domain
“It is true that the ruling elites fought for power and control. But compromises and peaceful negotiations to reach agreements were equally important.”
For the local elites to maintain power, they had to be flexible and adapt to conflicting demands: from the monarchy, from other principalities, and to some extent from the people.
“Co-lordship”, meaning that two or more lords shared power in the same area, was a common form of governance throughout the country.
“Historians have long assumed that such fragmentation of power was disadvantageous. Instead, I have concluded that it led to fewer conflicts and better cooperation. For the peasants, it was beneficial to have more players to negotiate with, and for the lords themselves, it allowed for more political and economic flexibility.”
The record is a village where as many as 20 lords shared power. The one with the least ownership only held 1/400 of the land.
The Local Lord Was Most Important For Ordinary People
Power and land ownership were closely linked in historical contexts. A powerful lord typically owned extensive lands and wielded authority over the inhabitants of those areas. In smaller communities, the primary difference between a lord and an average farmer might be the financial capacity to own a two-story house.
For ordinary villagers, power dynamics were evident through the influence of local lords. However, this influence had its limits; lords could not unilaterally create new laws or impose severe punishments, such as executions. Instead, laws and regulations were rooted in customs, focusing on practical solutions to everyday issues.
For instance, if someone’s pig wandered onto a neighbor’s property and ate their carrots, resolving such disputes required pragmatic approaches based on established customs and traditions.
The King Began To Demand Taxes
In historical contexts, local lords were typically permitted to collect taxes only under exceptional circumstances, such as during times of war or crisis. The prevailing expectation was that they would sustain themselves with the income generated from their own lands. However, this practice evolved in the 15th century when a more systematic approach to tax collection was introduced, directing revenues to the king.
As noted by an Oslo historian, despite the absence of democracy at that time, taxation still heavily relied on collaboration and negotiation. The king relied on the cooperation of local lords and dukes for tax collection, given his limited administrative capacity—only 4,000 officials served a population of 15 million. Consequently, he often granted these local leaders considerable autonomy in managing their regions to secure their loyalty and support.
Women And Men Had Similar Roles
Graham-Goering’s research is largely based on original archival materials, such as letters, charters, accounts, and legal texts. One of her sources is Christine de Pizan (1364–1430), known as Europe’s first paid female writer.
Christine de Pizan became a professional writer after the death of her husband in 1390. Credit: Public Domain
“De Pizan writes about leading women in the aristocracy and how it was expected that they could do pretty much the same things as men. They needed to know everything from laws and regulations to how to lead an army.”
In Brittany, for example, Jeanne de Penthièvre was a significant figure of authority. At the age of 15, she ascended to the position of Duchess of Brittany after inheriting it from her uncle. Alongside her husband, she engaged in a prolonged conflict that spanned 24 years to maintain her rightful position as duchess.
“Women were somewhat more vulnerable to coups, but nonetheless, one in five of those in power were women. When Jeanne married, she remained the legitimate owner of the land.”
Noblemen and noblewomen historically shared many leadership responsibilities, though it was uncommon for women to engage in warfare. A notable exception is Joan of Arc (1412–1431), who is now recognized as a saint by the Catholic Church. During the Hundred Years’ War, she played a pivotal role by leading the French army against England.
It is interesting to note that women’s political influence diminished following the French Revolution and the advent of democracy, as they were neither eligible to vote nor hold elected office. In contrast, when leadership roles were inherited, women had a relatively higher likelihood of reaching top positions within the hierarchy and wielding power, as observed by Graham-Goering.
Source: University of Oslo
Written by – Jan Bartek – AncientPages.com Staff Writer